Grantee Research Project Results
Final Report: Sustainable Community Oriented Stormwater Management (S-COSM): A Sensible Strategy for the Chesapeake Bay
EPA Grant Number: R835284Title: Sustainable Community Oriented Stormwater Management (S-COSM): A Sensible Strategy for the Chesapeake Bay
Investigators: Leisnham, Paul , Wilson, Sacoby M. , Davis, Allen , Montas, Hubert , Chanse, Victoria , McCoy, John , Foster, James , Rockler, Amanda , Shirmohammadi, Adel , Lipton, Douglas
Institution: University of Maryland - College Park , Anacostia Watershed Society , Columbia Association , Maryland Sea Grant
EPA Project Officer: Packard, Benjamin H
Project Period: July 1, 2012 through June 30, 2017
Project Amount: $691,674
RFA: Sustainable Chesapeake: A Community-Based Approach to Stormwater Management Using Green Infrastructure (2012) RFA Text | Recipients Lists
Research Category: Watersheds , Pollution Prevention/Sustainable Development , Sustainable and Healthy Communities , Water
Objective:
The goal of this project was to efficiently improve urban stormwater conditions by increasing Best Management Practice (BMP) adoption on targeted hot spots via a Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) process. The Objectives were to: 1) identify barriers to BMP adoption, 2) spatially target stormwater hot spots with appropriate BMPs, filtered by adoption likelihood, and 3) lower BMP adoption thresholds.>
Summary/Accomplishments (Outputs/Outcomes):
Objective 1:
The main findings from the stakeholder interviews, Photovoice analyses, and the first KAP survey were given in Year 2, (2014), Year 3 (2015) and Year 4 (2016) annual reports, respectively. These actions yielded thorough analyses of both youth and adult knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors towards water resources and stormwater management in both study watersheds (Wilde Lake, Columbia, MD; Watts Branch, Prince Georges Co., MD/Washington DC), and culminated in two journal articles. In Year 5, work focused on finding predictors of specific BMP implementation, rather than the implementation of BMPs in general, and to determine the risks of mosquito production from stormwater structures. The three most common BMPs that were implemented by resident households were reducing fertilizer use (125 of 297 households), disconnected downspouts (107/297) and natural landscaping (76/297) (Figure 1).
Figure 1. In additional to reducing the use of fertilizer, our survey revealed that disconnected downspouts (left) and natural landscaping (right), were the most common household stormwater BMPs in the study watersheds. Black extension tubing that is common on disconnected downspouts can harbor standing water and vector mosquitoes, and was studied in our follow-up survey.
Consistent with prior analyses that predicted BMP implementation, resident knowledge and household ownership were strong positive predictors of the implementation of two out three of these common BMPs: reducing fertilizer and natural landscaping. For example, residents in households that owned their dwelling were 1.72 and 2.53 times more likely to reduce fertilizer and do natural landscaping, respectively. Residents with 12.5% greater knowledge of BMPs (i.e., self-reported familiarity of more BMPs from a list) were 12.7% more likely to reduce fertilizer, and residents that self-reported being familiar with natural landscaping were 5.5 times more likely to live in a household that implemented it. These findings (as well as others that are detailed in the journal article that is currently in review) suggest that a lack of BMP knowledge in general and of some BMPs in particular may be a strong barrier to better water quality in residential watersheds. The survey also found that variation in BMP knowledge was explained by specific demographic factors. For example, respondents who defined themselves as Caucasian or who were collapsed into a category of respondents who did not self-identify as either Caucasian or African American, or who owned their homes, had higher average BMP knowledge than respondents that identified themselves as African American or renters, respectively. These findings show that, through important variation in resident knowledge, there is a clear connection between the socio-economic and cultural environment and BMP implementation. The predictive relationships on BMP implementation of resident knowledge in this study broadly supports the information-deficit hypothesis of environmental education, whereby public skepticism or hostility to science, technology, or more specifically in this case, to environmental conservation, is a result of a lack of understanding and information. By identifying specific demographic groups with lower BMP implementation (i.e., renters) or groups with lower knowledge that can lead to lower BMP implementation (e.g., African Americans), our study allows the targeting of outreach interventions that could maximize overall increases in BMP implementation and watershed health.
Although our first survey indicated the importance of education to increase BMP implementation, the follow-up survey showed no differences in resident understanding of stormwater fee and BMP cost-share/incentive programs between households that received existing print education materials vs. control households. These results suggest that improvements in resident understanding of stormwater and its management may require careful development and deployment of education messaging, consistent with our findings from focus groups in Year 4 under Objective 3. Related entomological surveys of backyard mosquito habitats, including disconnected downspouts, revealed that these common stormwater structures harbored much lower abundances of human-biting mosquitoes compared to other types of water-holding containers (Figure 2). This finding suggests that the perceived risk of higher mosquito production and risk from associated pathogens (e.g., West Nile virus) with backyard stormwater structures is largely unfounded. Nevertheless, although disconnected downspout extensions did not represent a prominent source of mosquitoes, reducing any water that is held in them is still considered a prudent action to prevent mosquito biting after heavy rainfall events, and our survey found that this action was negatively affected by a resident’s membership in a housing association. Thus, a recommendation from this study is to target housing association staff and residents with effective mosquito management education.
Figure 2. Mean Total Estimated Mosquito Abundance by Container Type per Household.
Objective 2:
Diagnostic Decision Support System (DDSS) development culminated in the integration of social data in Years 4 and 5 so that the BMP adoption likelihood could be spatially modeled. A thorough overview of DDSS development using environmental data is in the Year 3 (2015) annual report. The Year 4 (2016) annual report further detailed predicted constituent export reductions at the outlets of the study watersheds, with 100% adoption and with adoption targeted to the most severe hotspots. The BMP adoption likelihood model of these previous years considered the likelihood of adopting any BMP, rather than specifically adopting the DDSS-prescribed BMPs, leading to only mild spatial variations and only mild guidance for spatially-targeting social interventions aimed at increasing BMP adoption. Year 4 results led us to refine the BMP adoption model to be BMP-specific in Year 5. The BMP-specific model was applied to predict the adoption likelihood of the DDSS-prescribed BMPs. The corresponding results, along with prescribed BMPs and constituent export predictions (computed on the basis of SWAT Hydrologic Response Units [HRUs]) were integrated in a pair of web-based software tools, written in html and javascript, using the Free and Open Source (FOS) Openlayers framework, and the Google Maps framework, respectively. The same functionality was implemented in both software tools. Figure 3 demonstrates the application of the OpenLayers version of the web-DDSS to the Wilde Lake study watershed.
Figure 3. BMP Adoption Likelihood and Prescribed BMPs in the Wilde Lake Watershed. The BMP adoption likelihood layer is shown in the top screenshot and the prescribed BMPs are shown in the bottom screenshot.
Buttons, at the top-right, allow navigation to the Watts Branch watershed, to the College Park campus, or to the GPS location of the user, as reported by his/her browser (an opt-in process). The BMP adoption likelihood layer is shown in the top screenshot and the prescribed BMPs are shown in the bottom screenshot. The user switches from one to the other by clicking on the legend, located at the left-hand-side of the screen. The software has the usual GIS functionality whereby an information window pops-up when features are clicked (here Critical Source Areas – CSAs). The popup displays the SWAT model HRU ID of the CSA and its base properties: slope, percent imperviousness, USLE C and K, SCS Curve Number (CN), Average moisture content (AWC) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks). The parameters that the DDSS identified as problematic during its diagnosis phase are displayed in red. The popup also shows the yearly export of each constituent, from this CSA, on a per-area basis, as predicted by the calibrated SWAT model. It displays those found to be excessive in red (i.e., those that caused this HRU to be classified as a CSA, during the hot-spot identification phase of the DDSS). The BMP prescribed by the DDSS for the selected CSA, based on biophysical considerations, is displayed below the hydrologic characteristics. The likelihood that this specific BMP will be adopted by residents of the CSA, computed based on local socio-economic factors, is shown below the prescribed BMP. It is displayed in red if it is below 50%, indicating a need for social intervention. In the Wilde Lake watershed, a broad area of low BMP adoption likelihood is found in the central area of the site (circled in red). The prescribed BMP for this area is mainly Native Landscaping, which particularly helps to reduce nutrient export from fertilized lawns. The low likelihood of adoption, coupled with the fact that a single prescribed BMP dominates the area, suggests that social intervention can be most effective to reduce water quality impacts from the zone. The intervention may take the form, for example, of a publicity campaign and promotions at local home-garden stores, accompanied by conversion of lawns to native plants by willful residents, schools and public real-estate, followed by social diffusion (intrinsic).
Figure 4 presents the web-based DDSS software developed with the Google Maps framework. Results presented in this figure are for the Watts Branch watershed, where BMP adoption likelihood is, on the whole, predicted to be lower than in Wilde Lake. The Google Maps framework has essentially the same functionality as the OpenLayers version but uses Google’s base layers, which can be switched from “map” to “satellite” (upper-left button). A small portion of the watershed, at its north-west corner (circled in green), shows good adoption likelihood for rain barrels and porous pavement. However, the most prevalent prescribed BMPs are native landscaping (for nutrient export reduction) and infiltration trenches (for surface runoff reduction) which are not currently favored by residents. As with the Wilde Lake watershed, one may expect social interventions to be key in increasing conversion of lawns to native plants and in promoting the development of infiltration areas in this site. The interventions would however need to target both residents and landlords, in this dense urban area, with substantial rental property.
Figure 4. BMP Adoption Likelihood and Prescribed BMPs in the Watts Branch Watershed
In previous study years, we investigated how climate change may affect the constituent export behavior of the study watersheds and the effectiveness of DDSS-prescribed BMPs by modifying the rainfall regime to represent mean future expectations for Maryland. During Year 5, we expanded on this analysis by using 6 CMIP5 climate models and 4 future scenarios, but limited the analysis to the Wilde Lake watershed. The predicted outlet response of the watershed, up to year 2090, is depicted in Figure 5. The CMIP5 model-predicted increase in annual precipitation results in concomitant increases in export of all constituents, as expected for this region.
Figure 5. Predicted Response of the Wilde Lake Watershed to Climate Change
The impacts of climate change on CSAs were evaluated using two approaches. In the first approach, the quantity of constituents generated by each HRU were used as criteria to identify the hot-spots. In the second approach the ratios of constituent exports (other than runoff) to runoff generation were used as identification criteria. The first approach may be most applicable to flood prevention issues and the maintenance of agricultural productivity, where the total amount of runoff, and of soil loss, respectively, are key factors. The second approach may be most applicable to maintaining water quality, where the concentrations of sediments, nitrogen and phosphorus, in effluent waters, are key factors. Results indicated, under both approaches, that hot-spots identified under current climate remain hot-spots with future climate change. However, with the quantitative criteria (1st approach) several new CSAs emerge in the future, nearly doubling the watershed area where BMPs should be implemented. Conversely, with the concentration criteria (2nd approach), the area occupied by CSAs remains relatively constant into the future. The implications of these results are that runoff control for this region in the future is expected to require an increasing amount of resources. Meanwhile, if DDSS-prescribed BMPs are adopted and remain effective under the more intense rainfall regimes of the future, they will manage to maintain water quality gains, without a need to expand adoption to new areas of the watershed. Under these conditions, DDSS-prescribed BMPs would be considered robust against climate change, with respect to water quality, but future flood prevention may require new hot spots to be considered using a quantitative criterion. These results are part of Z. Xiang’s M.S. thesis in Civil Engineering, directed by project PIs, and will be published soon. Also, in interpreting these results, it is important to realize that the degree to which BMPs designed for current climate remain effective under higher or lower future precipitation (both: annual rainfall, storm intensities, and seasonal distribution) remains a topic of experimental and model-analysis research.
Objective 3:
Training Master Watershed Stewards in each study watershed was the main community-based education/extension intervention of this project, and NCRWSA and HoCoWSA have had numerous outputs over the past five years. Each year, both WSAs have culminated in student Capstone projects that have directly helped improve stormwater management in this project’s study watersheds. Projects have included stormwater harvesting with rain barrels, tree plantings, storm drain stenciling, rain garden installations, and a fertilizer/pet waste awareness campaign. Stewards have been able to raise more than $4,500 to support their projects each year of the project. In Year 3, NCRWSA launched an additional online iCourse in partnership with the UMD to extend the reach of the WSA program to citizens in the region. In Years 4 and 5, WSA students have helped map new and existing BMPs as part of UMD’s Stormwater Management and Restoration Tracker (SMART) (https://extension.umd.edu/watershed/smart-tool). Watershed Stewards from each program continue to design and install Capstone projects within each study watershed.
Conclusions:
Over its duration, this project has produced numerous high-impact research and extension accomplishments under each of its three Objectives. The main accomplishments include:
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Objective 1: Completing Interviews of stakeholders, Photovoice exercises with youth, and two Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) surveys that improve our understanding of resident viewpoints towards water resources and stormwater management, and help identify specific barriers to appropriate BMP implementation. These activities informed the development of a BMP adoption likelihood model under Objective 2.
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Objective 2: Developing a Diagnostic Decision Support System (DDSS) that helps watershed managers prescribe effective BMPs and intervention strategies for given environmental (e.g., land use, climate change scenarios) and social conditions (e.g., resident demographics, knowledge, and behaviors), as well as associated web-accessible software tools to enable its remote access.
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Objective 3: The development and deployment of more effective stormwater education messaging and Watershed Steward Academies (WSAs) that integrate the findings from Objectives 1 and 2. The main goal of WSAs is to identify, train, and support citizens who partner with their neighbors to restore local waterways.
These activities have resulted in 4 peer-reviewed journal articles (with an additional 2 articles in advanced preparation), 30 research presentations, 1 Ph.D. dissertation, 1 M.S. thesis (with an additional one expected in fall 2017), over 730 informed stakeholders through extension presentations, and 173 Master Watershed Stewards.
References:
Wang, Y., H. Montas P.T. Leisnham, K. Brubaker, A. Shirmohammadi, V. Chanse, A. Rockler. 2017. A diagnostic decision support system for BMP selection in a small urban watershed. Water Resources Management 31(5): 1649-1664.
Chanse, V., Mohamed, A. Wilson, S., Delamarre, L., Rockler, A., Leisnham, P.T., Shirmohammadi, A. Montas, H. (2016) New approaches to facilitate learning from youth: Exploring the use of Photovoice in identifying local watershed issues. The Journal of Environmental Education. 1-12. doi: 10.1080/00958964.2016.1256260.
Wang, Y., H. Montas, K. Brubaker, P.T. Leisnham, A. Shirmohammadi, V. Chanse, A.K. Rockler (2016). Impact of spatial discretization of hydrologic models on spatial distribution of nonpoint source pollution hotspots. ASCE Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001455 , 04016047.
Chanse, V. 2017. Environmental planning through community engagement and trans-disciplinary partnerships: Planning in an era of global environmental change. University of Maryland Center for Environmental Sciences-Appalachian Laboratory. Frostburg, MD (Invited talk).
Chanse, V. 2016. Environmental planning through participation and trans-disciplinary partnerships: Planning in an era of global environmental change. West Virginia University. Baltimore, MD. (Invited talk).
Leisnham, PT. 2016. Climate change, community responses, and adaption: Focus on watershed management. Climate Action 2016 Forum. College Park, MD. (Invited talk)
Chanse, V., Xiang, Z., Rockler, A. 2016. Improving adoption of stormwater management practices: Integrating social and biophysical dimensions. Baltimore Urban Waters Partnership Meeting. Baltimore, MD. (Invited talk).
Chanse, V. and H. Trobman. 2016. The role of metrics in addressing stormwater design & planning: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Rainworks Competition & The University of Maryland’s 2014 Winning Submission. 2016 National Capital Region Water Resources Symposium. University of the District of Columbia. (Invited talk).
Chanse, V., P.T. Leisnham, H. Montas. 2015. Improving adoption of stormwater management practices: Integrating social and biophysical dimensions. U.S. EPA National Center for Environmental Research (NCER). National Nutrient Management Kickoff Workshop. Narragansett, RI. (Invited talk).
Chanse, V. 2013. Community-based approaches to stormwater management and design at local scales. Green Roof Seminar. Seminar in Plant Science and Landscape Architecture: Green Roofs and Urban Sustainability. University of Maryland, College Park, MD. (Invited talk).
Chanse, V. 2013. Examples from Community Design Studio’s Design Games-Approaches and Outcomes in Ward 7. Guest lecturer for the Anacostia Watershed Society's Watershed Steward Academy. Center for Green Urbanism. Washington, DC. (Invited talk).
Chanse, V. 2012. The role of the human dimension in watershed planning and stormwater design: Human behavior, public health, and community engagement. Center for Green Urbanism. Washington, DC. (Invited talk).
Leisnham, P.T. 2016. Watershed diagnostics for improved adoption of management practices: Integrating biophysical and social factors across urban and agricultural landscapes. 4th International One Health Congress & 6th Biennial Congress of the International Association for Ecology and Health. Melbourne, Australia.
Renkenberger, J., P.K. Maeda, Y. Wang, H.J Montas, P.T. Leisnham, V. Chanse, A. Shirmohammadi, A. Sadeghi, K. Brubaker, A. Rockler, T. Hutson, D. Lansing. 2016. Spatially targeted social interventions to improve BMP adoption in Maryland watersheds. ASABE Annual International Meeting. Orlando, FL.
Chanse, V., P.T. Leisnham, A. Rockler, J. McCoy, L. Cain, S. Wilson, H. Montas, A. Shirmohammadi, A. Mohamed. 2014. A community-based participatory research approach for stormwater management: Implications of differing BMP approaches in two urban watersheds. EDRA45, The Environmental Design Research Association Conference. New Orleans, LA.
Chanse, V., A. Mohamed, A. Rockler, A. Mendoza, P.T. Leisnham, A. Shirmohammadi, S. Wilson, J. McCoy, V. Perry, H. Montas. 2014. Barriers and incentives to stormwater management: comparative case study of two watersheds. 2014 Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture Conference. Baltimore, MD.
Chanse, V., A. Mohamed, S. Wilson, A. Rockler, P.T. Leisnham, Y. Wang, H. Montas, A. Shirmohammadi, K. Brubaker. 2014. Applying a community-based participatory action research to stormwater management: BMP practices, education and incentives. National Academy of Environmental Design. Richmond, VA.
Leisnham, P.T., Y. Wang, D. Schall, H. Montas, K. Brubaker, A. Shirmohammadi. 2014. Watershed diagnostics for improved adoption of management practices: Integrating biophysical and social factors across urban and agricultural landscapes. EcoHealth 2014. 5th Biennial Conference of the International Association for Ecology & Health. Montréal, Québec, Canada.
Leisnham, P.T. , H. Montas, A. Shirmohammadi, V. Chanse, D. Lansing, A. Rockler, T. Hutson, J. McCoy, L. Cain, S. Wilson, D. Lipton, K. Brubaker, Y. Wang. 2014. A collaborative transdisciplinary approach to urban stormwater. Social Coast Forum. Charleston, SC.
Leisnham, P.T., H. Montas, A. Shirmohammadi, V. Chanse, D. Lansing, A. Rockler, T. Hutson, J. McCoy, L. Cain, S. Wilson, D. Lipton, K. Brubaker, Y. Wang. 2013. Watershed diagnostics for improved adoption of management practices: Integrating biophysical and social factors across urban and agricultural landscapes. ASABE Meeting Presentation, Paper Number: 1668614. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Annual Meeting. Kansas City, MO.
Leisnham, P.T., H. Montas, A. Shirmohammadi, V. Chanse, D. Lansing, A. Rockler, T. Hutson, J. McCoy, L. Cain, S. Wilson, D. Lipton, K. Brubaker, Y. Wang. 2013. Watershed diagnostics for improved adoption of management practices: Integrating biophysical and social factors across urban and agricultural landscapes. NABEC Meeting Presentation, Paper 13-017. Northeastern Biological Engineers Conference. Altoona, PA.
Leisnham, P.T. , H. Montas, A. Shirmohammadi, V. Chanse, D. Lansing, A. Rockler, T. Hutson, J. McCoy, L. Cain, S. Wilson, D. Lipton, K. Brubaker, Y. Wang. 2013. A collaborative transdisciplinary approach to urban stormwater. Biennial Conference of the Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation (CERF). San Diego, CA.
Leisnham, P.T., H. Montas, A. Shirmohammadi, V. Chanse, D. Lansing, A. Rockler, T. Hutson, J. McCoy, J. Foster, S. Wilson, D. Lipton, A. Davis. 2013. Watershed diagnostics for Improved adoption of management practices: Integrating biophysical and social factors in urban and agricultural landscapes. 2013 International Low Impact Development Symposium. St. Paul, MN.
Maeda, P.K., P.T. Leisnham, R. Tjaden, V. Chanse, A. Rockler. 2017. Linking stormwater BMPs and mosquito infestation to resident socioeconomic status, knowledge, and attitudes in two suburban watersheds. Ecological Society of America 102nd Annual Meeting. Portland, OR.
Peng, B., V. Chanse, A. Rockler, S. Wilson, P.T. Leisnham, K. Maeda, K. Brubaker, A. Shirmohammadi, H. Montas. 2017. Attitudes and preferences for residential stormwater BMPs: A comparative case study. Environmental Design Research Association Conference. Madison, WI.
Mohammed, A., V. Chanse, S. Wilson, L. Delamarre, P.T. Leisnham, A. Rockler, A. Shirmohammadi. 2015. Visualizing nature. Ecological Society of America 100th Annual Meeting. Baltimore, MD.
Wang, Y., H. Montas, K. Brubaker, P.T. Leisnham, V. Chanse, A. Rockler, A. Shirmohammadi. 2014. Comparisons of BMP selection between urban and suburban watersheds using a diagnostic decisions support system. 2014 American Water Resources Association Annual Water Resources Conference. Tysons Corner, VA.
Wang, Y., H. Montas, P.T. Leisnham, A. Shirmohammadi, K. Brubaker, V. Chanse, S. Reiling. 2013. A diagnostic decision support system for BMP-selection in small urban watersheds. American Geophysical Union’s 47th Annual Fall Meeting. (San Francisco, CA: 15-19 December 2013).
Wang, Y., H. Montas, K. Brubaker, P.T. Leisnham, V. Chanse, A. Rockler, A. Shirmohammadi. 2014. Comparisons of BMP selection between urban and suburban watersheds using a diagnostic decisions support system. 2014 American Water Resources Association Annual Water Resources Conference. Tysons Corner, VA.
Wang, Y., H. Montas, P.T. Leisnham, A. Shirmohammadi, K. Brubaker, V. Chanse, S. Reiling. 2013. A diagnostic decision support system for BMP-selection in small urban watersheds. American Geophysical Union’s 47th Annual Fall Meeting. (San Francisco, CA: 15-19 December 2013).
Wang, Y. 2015. A Diagnostic Decision Support System for Selecting Best Management Practices in Urban/Suburban Watersheds. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland at College Park.
Xiang, Z. 2017. Hydrologic Response of a Suburban Watershed to Climate Models. M.S. Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland at College Park.
Journal Articles on this Report : 3 Displayed | Download in RIS Format
Other project views: | All 33 publications | 3 publications in selected types | All 3 journal articles |
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Chanse V, Mohamed A, Wilson S, Dalemarre L, Leisnham PT, Rockler A, Shirmohammadi A, Montas, H. New approaches to facilitate learning from youth: exploring the use of Photovoice in identifying local watershed issues. The Journal of Environmental Education 2017;48(2):109-120. |
R835284 (Final) |
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Wang Y, Montas HJ, Brubaker KL, Leisnham PT, Shirmohammadi A, Chanse V, Rockler AK. Impact of spatial discretization of hydrologic models on spatial distribution of nonpoint source pollution hotspots. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2016;21(12):04016047. (12 pp). |
R835284 (2014) R835284 (2015) R835284 (2016) R835284 (Final) |
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Wang Y, Montas HJ, Brubaker KL, Leisnham PT, Shirmohammadi A, Chanse V. A diagnostic decision support system for BMP selection in small urban watershed. Water Resources Management 2017;31(5):1649-1664. |
R835284 (Final) R834798C005 (Final) |
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Supplemental Keywords:
pollution prevention, socio-economic, integrated assessmentRelevant Websites:
Clean Water for the Chesapeake Exit
Progress and Final Reports:
Original AbstractThe perspectives, information and conclusions conveyed in research project abstracts, progress reports, final reports, journal abstracts and journal publications convey the viewpoints of the principal investigator and may not represent the views and policies of ORD and EPA. Conclusions drawn by the principal investigators have not been reviewed by the Agency.
Project Research Results
- 2016 Progress Report
- 2015 Progress Report
- 2014 Progress Report
- 2013 Progress Report
- Original Abstract
3 journal articles for this project