Citation:

Tedla, G., Ann Jarabek, P. Byrley, W. Boyes, AND K. Rogers. Human exposure to metals in consumer-focused fused filament fabrication (FFF)/ 3D printing processes. SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT. Elsevier BV, AMSTERDAM, Netherlands, 814:152622, (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152622

Impact/Purpose:

Fused deposition modeling (FDM), also referred to as 3D printing, is a rapidly growing technology used in consumer venues such as homes, schools, libraries, and universities as well as numerous manufacturing sectors. The operation of 3D printers results in the release of inhalable particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), raising concerns of possible health impacts for those exposed to 3D printer emissions. Polymer compositions are typically reported for filaments, print objects and emissions; but less has been reported concerning the composition, amounts or the contributing effects of polymer additives. This issue may be relevant to exposure given the wide range of additives (e.g., metals, dyes, organometallics, and nanomaterials) and the possible inclusion of these additives in the resultant particle emissions. Many of the metals associated with negative health effects of exposure to polluted outdoor air, such as Fe, Ni, V, Cr, Zn, Al, Mn, and Pb are also found in both printer filaments and emissions. This report evaluates various issues including the following: metals in feedstock with a focus on filament characteristics and function of metals; the effect of metals on the emissions and metals detected in emissions; printer emissions, particle formation, transport and transformation; exposure and translation to internal dose; and potential toxicity on inhaled dose.

Description:

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) or 3D printing is a growing technology used in industry, cottage industry and for consumer applications. Low-cost 3D printing devices have become increasingly popular among children and teens. Consequently, 3D printers are increasingly common in households, schools, and libraries. Because the operation of 3D printers is associated with the release of inhalable particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), there are concerns of possible health implications, particularly for use in schools and residential environments that may not have adequate ventilation such as classrooms bedrooms and garages, etc. Along with the growing consumer market for low-cost printers and printer pens, there is also an expanding market for a range of specialty filaments with additives such as inorganic colorants, metal particles and nanomaterials as well as metal-containing flame retardants, antioxidants, heat stabilizers and catalysts. Inhalation of particulate-associated metals may represent a health risk depending on both the metal and internal dose to the respiratory tract. Little has been reported, however, about the presence, speciation, and source of metals in the emissions; or likewise the effect of metals on emission processes and toxicological implications of these 3D printer generated emissions. This report evaluates various issues including the following: metals in feedstock with a focus on filament characteristics and function of metals; the effect of metals on the emissions and metals detected in emissions; printer emissions, particle formation, transport, and transformation; exposure and translation to internal dose; and potential toxicity on inhaled dose. Finally, data gaps and potential areas of future research are discussed within these contexts.

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