Citation:

Crone, B., T. Speth, D. Wahman, S. Smith, G. Abulikemu, E. Kleiner, AND J. Pressman. Occurrence of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Source Water and Their Treatment in Drinking Water. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia, PA, 49(24):2359-2396, (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2019.1614848

Impact/Purpose:

Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) are fluorinated substances which are typically used as surface active agents and exposure to these compounds has been linked to high cholesterol, increased liver enzymes, decreased vaccination response, thyroid disorders, pregnancy induced hypertension and preeclampsia, and cancer. To understand potential exposure, occurrence of these substances in source and drinking water has been reviewed and it is estimated that between 5.5-6 million people in the US are exposed to PFAS contaminated drinking water. This highlights the importance of evaluating and developing efficient and cost-effective treatment technologies to protect human. While many technologies have been evaluated, only high pressure membranes, Anion Exchange Resins (AEX), and activated carbon adsorption have shown efficacy for treating PFAS in drinking water. High pressure membrane treatment has been shown to be highly effective for removing PFAS from drinking water but faces limitations due to being cost and energy intensive. AEX resins can be effective at removing PFAS from drinking water but face complications with regeneration or disposal and competition with NOM and other drinking water constituents. The use of activated carbon for removing PFAS from drinking water is the most widely reported and evaluated treatment technology in the literature and has been reported to have varying levels of treatment efficacy and will be strongly dependent upon the solution matrix. Each technology has limitations that need to be addressed with further research. Identification of research gaps in this review will guide future research and summaries of treatment technologies will assist utilities in selecting appropriate treatment technologies.

Description:

Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) occurrence in drinking water sources and treatment methods for their removal is reviewed. PFAS are fluorinated substances whose unique properties make them effective surface-active agents with uses ranging from stain repellants to fire-fighting foams. In response to concerns about drinking water contamination and health risks from PFAS exposure the United States Environmental Protection Agency published Health Advisories (HAs) for perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid. The occurrence of six PFAS in source water for drinking water treatment has been reported in the Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR3), and subsequent analysis of the dataset suggested that between 5.5-6 million people are exposed to drinking water above the HA. Many treatment technologies have been evaluated in the literature with the most promising and readily applied treatment technologies being activated carbon, anion exchange resins, and high-pressure membrane systems. From these data, research and data gaps were identified and suggestions for future research are provided.

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