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The Recreational Water Cycle: From Source Water to Tap Water to Spa and Swimming Pool Water: Effects of Disinfectants and Precursors and Implications for Exposure and Toxicity
Citation:
Daiber, E., S. Anduri, S. Richardson, D. DeMarini, E. Blatchley, AND M. Afifi. The Recreational Water Cycle: From Source Water to Tap Water to Spa and Swimming Pool Water: Effects of Disinfectants and Precursors and Implications for Exposure and Toxicity. Presented at Gordon Research Conference on Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products, South Hadley, MA, August 05 - 09, 2012.
Impact/Purpose:
Poster for Gordon Research Conference on Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products
Description:
The current study investigates the effect of different disinfection treatments on the disinfection by-products (DBPs) formed in finished drinking water vs. tap water vs. swimming pool water vs. spa waters. To this end, complete water pathway samples (untreated source waters ->finished drinking water -> tap water -> pool/spa water) were collected in different regions of the United States, including both public and private swimming pools and spas. This enables the study of the formation and fate of DBPs at different points in this pathway, including the untreated source water (which generally does not contain DBPs), disinfection at the drinking water treatment plant, transport through the distribution system to the tap (where DBPs can either increase or decrease in concentration), followed by additional disinfection in the swimming pool/spa. The disinfectants investigated included hypochlorite, 1-bromo-3-chloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoin (“bromine”), and ozone. DBPs were comprehensively identified using gas chromatography (GC)/mass spectrometry (MS), and several DBPs (the 4 regulated trihalomethanes (THM4), the 9 chloro/bromo-haloacetic acids (HAA9), halonitriles, haloketones, chloral hydrate, chloramines, and cyanogen halides) were quantified using GC/electron capture detection, GC/MS, and membrane introduction mass spectrometry (MIMS). In vitro toxicity studies were carried out using the Ames Assay and the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) assay. Concentrations of DBPs in the spas were higher than in their swimming pool (and tap water) counterparts, likely due to the higher temperatures in the spas. The spa treated with bromine showed the highest mutagenicity of the water samples studied. Further, DBP levels increased appreciably from a “pristine” spa situation (sampled 24 hours after cleaning and replacing water) to a heavily used situation (sampled 3 weeks after cleaning). Currently, comprehensive analysis of these samples is lead
