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Pharmaceutical Ingredients in Drinking Water: Overview of Occurrence and Significance of Human Exposure
Citation:
DAUGHTON, C. G. Pharmaceutical Ingredients in Drinking Water: Overview of Occurrence and Significance of Human Exposure. Chapter 2, R. Halden (ed.), Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Environment: Ecological and Human Health Considerations. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1048:9-68, (2010).
Impact/Purpose:
Publication of investigations directed at pharmaceuticals as trace environmental contaminants began in earnest in the mid-1990s (1). As of October 2009, the US EPA's citation database of publications on pharmaceuticals as environmental contaminants comprised more than 8,000 documents dealing with the many aspects of this expansive topic (2). Those with a major focus on pharmaceuticals specifically as contaminants in drinking water totaled roughly only 250. Of these, all but 20 had been published since 2000. This chapter presents a synoptic overview of the occurrence of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in finished drinking water and some of the less-discussed aspects of the potential ramifications for human health. The discussion builds on the synopsis published in early 2008 (3); among other overviews are: (4-9) and those in (10,11). Aspects not addressed here include treatment technologies and approaches for reducing API residues in drinking
Description:
A comprehensive examination of the data published through most of 2009 on the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) that have been reported in finished drinking water (FDW) is presented. A synoptic review reveals that published quantitative data for FDW exists for 61 APIs and metabolites. Almost all of the available data has been published since the year 2000. The occurrence data are organized around the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification system. The top four ATC classes for which the most APIs have been reported are: N, C, M, and V. Some emphasis is also placed on negative data - those APIs with either data of absence or absence of data. The six most frequently reported APIs in FDW (in descending order) are: carbamazepine, ibuprofen, sulfamethoxazole, clofibric acid, gemfibrozil, and iopromide. The six APIs with roughly the most consistent highest reported concentrations are: ibuprofen, triclosan, carbamazepine, phenazone, clofibric acid, and acetaminophen. With only one exception, no API exceeded a concentration of 1 ppb (1 μg/L). Also covered are some of the reported transformation products and disinfection by-products unique to APIs. Some of the less-discussed aspects of the potential ramifications for human health are also included. A clearer picture is emerging as to the extent and scope of API occurrence in drinking water, some preliminary generalizations can be drawn, and a better sense is emerging of where future research should be directed.